Okinawa—the Tragic History of the Ryukyu Kingdom

From Ancient Trade Empire through Subjugation, Devastation, to Today’s Blue Zone Fame

For 450 years, Okinawa was the seat of the refined Ryukyu Kingdom, a Chinese tributary and a pivotal hub of East Asian trade. Strategically positioned at the crossroads of Japan, China, and Southeast Asia, the Ryukyu Islands became a major entrepôt, attracting trading ships from Japan, Korea, and as far south as Java.

Renowned for their propriety, friendliness, and peaceful nature, the Ryukyu people developed a unique culture enriched by international exchanges, turning their island paradise into a repository of treasures from foreign lands. The history of Ryukyu, from its beginnings as a loose federation of chiefdoms to its eventual annexation by Japan, is a story of resilience, diplomacy, and poignant tragedy.

Okinawa Prefecture consists of 160 islands, 49 inhabited, stretching 400 kilometers (250 miles) from north to south and 1,000km (620 miles) from east to west. This area makes up the southern two-thirds of the former Ryukyu Kingdom, now known as the Ryukyu Archipelago, which extends from near Kyushu to off the northeastern coast of Taiwan.

The prefecture is divided into two main island chains: the central Okinawa Islands and the southern Sakishima Islands. The Sakishima Islands are further subdivided into smaller archipelagos: the Miyako Islands and the Yaeyama Islands. 

Okinawa Island, the largest in the chain, is 112km (70 miles ) long and 11km (7 miles) wide and covers an area of 1,199 square kilometers (463 square miles). Naha, the island’s largest city, is the capital of Okinawa Prefecture. Roughly 36% of the prefecture’s land area has been designated as natural parks by the Ministry of the Environment. On Okinawa Island, home to over 90% of the prefecture’s population, US military bases occupy 18% of the land representing two-thirds of the US military presence in Japan.

Geographically, the seas north of Okinawa Island are so densely dotted with islands that one can sail to Kyushu without losing sight of land. In contrast, traveling south requires navigating 290km (180 miles) of open seas to reach the Miyako Islands. This isolation contributed to the slower development of the Sakishima Islands, where a hunter-gatherer lifestyle persisted until the 15th century, long after agriculture and governance had advanced in the northern Ryukyus.

Trade’s Influence on Culture

Okinawa has absorbed cultural influences from its trading partners, as seen in its arts, crafts, music, and festivals. Bingata, a resist dyeing technique that dates back to the 14th century, emerged during intense foreign trade, blending Indian, Chinese, and Javanese dyeing methods.

Another textile is Kijoka bashofu, a lightweight, durable fabric made from banana fiber, recognized as an Important Intangible Cultural Property of Japan. The production process, from harvesting the banana fiber to weaving the fabric, is done by hand and requires over 40 trees to produce enough thread for a standard cloth roll. Natural plant dyes give the material soft colors, woven into simple geometric patterns.

The sanshin, a three-stringed instrument, is closely related to the Chinese sanxian and is the ancestor of the Japanese shamisen. Its body is often wrapped in imported python skin, as the skin of the native habu pit viper is too small for this purpose.

The oldest distilled alcoholic drink in Japan, awamori, is a well-known product of Okinawa.  Believed to be the predecessor of shochu, awamori’s distillation technique was introduced from Siam (modern-day Thailand) around 1470. The process involves soaking Indica Thai rice—more receptive to the koji mold than Japanese rice—in water, then fermenting it with black koji mold and yeast before a single distillation. Unlike sake, awamori is aged in clay pots, enhancing and deepening its flavors.

Okinawa’s festivals and performing arts also carry the imprint of cultural exchange. The Haari dragon boat race, held during Golden Week, has its roots in Chinese traditions. Classical dance once performed in the Ryukyu court to welcome guests, and the Eisa dance, performed during the August Bon Festival for the repose of ancestral spirits, are distinctly Okinawan. The Naha Great Tug-of-War, a festival that began 560 years ago during the Ryukyu Kingdom, continues as a popular event each October.

Kumidori, a form of dance-drama created in 1719 by Chōkun Tamagusuku, the dance magistrate of the Ryukyu Imperial Court, blends the performing arts of the islands and the Japanese mainland with Ryukyuan legends. Originally performed to entertain Chinese emissaries, Kumidori consists of spoken lines in Japanese and the old language used by the royal government, classical Ryukyuan music and singing, and Ryukyuan dance. With its intricate props and stage settings, Kumidori, like Noh Theater, was a refined art form for the upper classes. In 2010, UNESCO recognized Kumidori as an Intangible Cultural Heritage.

Early History and Archeological Findings

Archaeological evidence suggests that Homo sapiens inhabited many of the Ryukyu Islands during the latter Paleolithic period (36,000-10,000 BC). The oldest human remains in Japan, dating back to 28,000 BC, were uncovered at the Yamashita-cho and Sakitari Cave sites on Okinawa Island, along with the earliest shell fishhook and the shells of mitten crab claws and river snails. These finds offer insights into the diet of these ancient people, who were previously believed to rely primarily on seafood and wild boar.

Well-preserved human remains dating back 18,000 years have been found at the Minatogawa site in Yaese Town on Okinawa Island. This individual, estimated to have stood 150-156 cm tall (4ft 11in-5ft 1in), had a slender torso and sturdy legs, indicative of an active hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Horizontal markings on the bones suggest periods of malnutrition and disease during growth, while heavily worn teeth indicate a difficult life and poor diet. Interestingly, the skull shows similarities to those of the Wajak people of Indonesia.

While only a handful of islands in the world supported early human habitation during the Paleolithic period, evidence of Homo Sapiens has been found on at least eight of the Ryukyu islands. In the northern Ryukyus, the prehistoric period continued until the 10th century, with hunting and gathering as the primary means of subsistence.

Within what is now Okinawa Prefecture, two distinct ancient cultures emerged. The northern region, from Okinawa to Amami Oshima (in present-day Kagoshima Prefecture), was heavily influenced by the Japanese mainland’s Jomon culture with its rich pottery tradition.

In contrast, the southern Sakishima Islands show cultural ties to Taiwan and the Malay Archipelago. Curiously, the people of the Sakishima Islands briefly used pottery before abandoning it around the 5th century BC, only to reintroduce it in the 13th century. This unusual shift divides the history of the Sakishima Islands into two phases: the early Shimotabaru Era and the latter No-Pottery Era.

First, let us turn to the history of Okinawa Island, then we will travel down south and explore history as it unfolded on the Sakishima Islands.

History of Okinawa

Like the Shinto belief in kami, or deities, Okinawan tradition speaks of spiritual beings called kang that inhabit sacred groves, caves, and natural spaces. These kang, seen as links to the spiritual world, vary in rank, with some residing in the heavens and others protecting homes, fields, and wells. Ancestors often serve as intermediaries between humans and these spiritual beings, linking the living to the divine.

According to Okinawan mythology, the heavenly king instructed the divine siblings Shineri-kyu and Amami-kyu to create the land and populate it.Using materials from heaven, they formed the Ryukyu Islands.

Though Shineri-kyu and Amami-kyu lived together without intimacy, Amami-kyu became pregnant when touched by a passing wind. She bore three children: the first ruler, the first noro priestess, and the first peasant. Later, a “heavenly grandchild,” Tenteishi, fathered three sons and two daughters.

His eldest son became the first king of the Tenson dynasty of Ryukyuan kings; his second son became the ancestor of the aji (local lords); and the third son became the first farmer. His eldest daughter became the first kikoe okimi, or noro high priestess, while her younger sister became the first community noro priestess.

In this society, men held temporal power, while spiritual authority belonged to women. Today, though sacred groves known as utaki still dot the islands, few people continue the ancient rituals that once brought life to these silent places.

Noro Priestesses

In Korea and the surrounding islands, women held powerful roles as intermediaries between the spirit world and humanity, often serving as rulers. Their prominence led Chinese writers to refer to these regions as the “queen countries.”

In Okinawa, noro priestesses played a vital role in local governance until the 20th century. Like the chief priestess of Japan’s Grand Ise Shrine, who must be a member of the imperial family, Okinawa’s high priestess was a daughter or sister of the king at Shuri, serving as spiritual intercessor and advisor to the royal household until Okinawa’s annexation in 1879.

Fire was sacred in ancient Okinawan beliefs, and one of the noro’s key duties was to preserve her village’s fire. Three simple hearthstones formed the center of worship, representing each village’s ne-gami, or root-deity. Dressed in white and wearing a string of beads, the noro tended the hearth fires, maintained springs, cared for sacred groves, and conducted ritual ancestor worship. She also divined auspicious days for marriage, travel, agricultural activities, and burials.

Contact with China

In the 6th century, following years of upheaval, the Sui dynasty unified China and began extending its influence. Chinese ambassadors were sent to the distant borderlands, including the legendary “Land of Happy Immortals” said to lie in the Eastern Seas.

In 608, a Chinese expedition set sail for the Ryukyu Islands, hoping to find the fabled immortals. Though the commander did not discover the paradise he sought, he encountered the islands’ native population who he advised to recognize the sovereignty of the Sui Emperor. The language barrier caused a misunderstanding that escalated into violence. This led to a battle in which many islanders were captured and brought to China.

When the Sui emissaries returned to the Chinese imperial court with these Ryukyuan captives and treasures, Japan’s first envoy, Ono no Imoko, happened to be present. Upon seeing the prisoners, he mistakenly identified them as coming from the island of Yaku, modern-day Yakushima, just south of Kyushu.

While this initial encounter with China was marked by violence and misunderstanding, it was the first known contact with China and Japan, and laid the groundwork for future connections. Over time, the Ryukyu Islands would emerge as significant players in regional trade, balancing relations with both those nations.

Early Kings

According to the Chuzan Seikan, the first official history of the Ryukyu Kingdom compiled in 1650,  the Tenson dynasty that started with Tenteishi’s son ruled for an astonishing seventeen thousand years and had twenty-five kings. However, little is known about its history until the fall of the last Tenson king in the 12th century.

Agricultural Development and the Rise of Aji, 11th century

Rice and foxtail millet cultivation, introduced in northern Ryukyu during the Middle Yayoi period (300 BC–250 AD), spread to central Ryukyu by the 11th century, establishing an agricultural society. This transformation led to the rise of local chieftains, or aji, who ruled farming communities from gusuku, fortified castles. Over time, powerful aji expanded their territories, consolidated wealth, and commanded armies.

These powerful aji formed loose confederations, dividing Ryukyu into three regions: Hokuzan in the north, Chuzan in the center, and Nanzan in the south. Hokuzan, rich in farmland, was less prosperous than Chuzan and Nanzan, which thrived through trade with China, Korea, and Japan, importing ceramics and exporting goods such as sulfur and green turban shells, valued for their use in mother-of-pearl inlay.

The Legend of Minamoto no Tametomo—the Shunten Dynasty (1187-1259)

In what may be an anachronistic attempt to link Okinawa with Japan, legend tells of Minamoto no Tametomo, a brave warrior of the Minamoto clan, descendants of the Japanese imperial family. After being defeated by the Taira clan in 1156, Tametomo was exiled and came to Okinawa. He was welcomed by the lord of Ozato, who gave him his daughter in marriage. From this union, a boy named Shunten was born.

When the Minamoto rose again to challenge the Taira, Tametomo left Okinawa and again met with defeat. He is said to have become the first in Japan to commit seppuku, ritual suicide. His nephew, Minamoto no Yoritomo, later overthrew the Taira and became Japan’s first shogun, establishing the Kamakura shogunate. Meanwhile, remnants of the defeated Taira clan fled to the Ryukyu Islands.

Tametomo’s son, Shunten, grew in respect and admiration, so much that he was made Lord of Ozato when he was only 15. This was a time of turmoil on Okinawa, as local lords rebelled against the corrupt 24th Tenson king. Influenced by Chinese Confucian ideals, Okinawa believed monarchs were mandated by the heavens, with the royal line continuing as long as the ruler remained virtuous. Well, virtuous he was not, and this last Tenson king was soon assassinated by one of his retainers who declared himself king. In 1187, Shunten led a revolt against this usurper and became ruler of Okinawa, reigning for 51 years and developing the island’s political, economic, and social life from his gusuku at Urasoe.

After Shunten died in 1237, his son Shumba-Junki succeeded him, ruling benevolently for eleven years. He is credited with building the magnificent hilltop Shuri Castle and introducing the Japanese hiragana alphabet that became the official script for documents and poetry written in the Ryukyu language. Chinese characters continued to be used for trade.

Shumba-Junki’s eldest son, Gihon, became king in 1248. His reign was marked by devastating natural disasters and an epidemic that halved the population. Accepting responsibility in line with Chinese Confucian ideals, Gihon appointed Eiso as regent and disappeared into the island’s northern forests. The Shunten Dynasty came to a close when Eiso became king in 1235. 

Eiso Dynasty (1260-1354)

Eiso and his successors reorganized land distribution and taxation. They collected weapons, grain, and cloth as tribute, storing these resources in raised, thatched warehouses similar to those in Taiwan. Neighboring Kume, Kerama, and Iheya Islands were also incorporated into this system and were required to send their tribute to Shuri.

During Eiso’s reign, Buddhism is said to have reached Okinawa when a shipwrecked Buddhist priest washed ashore. With the king’s permission, the priest established a small temple, Gokurakuji, initiating Buddhist influence on the island.

In 1272, King Eiso received a demand from Kublai Khan to submit to Mongol rule and assist in his planned invasion of Japan. Eiso refused. Four years later, the Mongols returned with a show of force. Although the Okinawans successfully repelled them, 130 islanders were taken captive. The Mongols later attacked Japan, but both invasions were thwarted by typhoons, which the Japanese called kamikaze, or divine winds.

Eiso died in 1299, succeeded by his son and then his grandson. However, instability began when his 19-year-old great-grandson Tamagusuku ascended the throne in 1314.

The Beginning of the Sanzan Era (approximately 1320-1429)

Tamagusuku, unlike his capable forefathers, proved inept. Unable to command the loyalty and respect of his officials, disputes soon escalated into open rebellion that resulted in Okinawa’s division into three kingdoms, or sanzan.

The Lord of Ozato left Urasoe, seized control of southern Okinawa, and declared himself king of Nanzan, the Southern kingdom. The Lord of Nakijin fortified Nakijin Castle on the Motobu Peninsula and proclaimed himself king of Hokuzan, the Northern kingdom. This left Tamagusuku with only the central portion of Okinawa, which became the kingdom of Chuzan, Central Mountain, with its capital at Urasoe.

Hokuzan, though the largest kingdom, was the poorest and least populated, with limited trade connections. Nanzan and Chuzan were more prosperous, particularly Chuzan, which had thriving commerce with China and Southeast Asia through its port in Naha. Despite Chuzan’s initial economic advantage, Tamagusuku’s weakening authority led outlying islands to stop paying tribute, destabilizing the kingdom’s finances.

When Tamagusuku died in 1336, he left the throne to his 10-year-old son, plunging the court into turmoil, as the young king’s mother meddled in government affairs, abused her position, and eroded popular support for her son. Amidst this instability, a young man named Satto rose to prominence as the governor of the Urasoe district.

The Rise of Satto, King of Chuzan (reigned 1345-1395)—Official Trade with China Begins

In 1349, following the death of the young king of Chuzan, Satto seized control and proclaimed himself king. Satto’s rise to power coincided with momentous changes in East Asia. The Mongol Empire was in decline, and the seas were teeming with Japanese pirates attacking trading ships and coastal ports.

Meanwhile, in China, a new leader emerged—Hung Wu Ti. Born a peasant, he became a Buddhist monk, a beggar, and finally a bandit leader. He and his followers took city after city until, in 1356, he conquered the capital, Nanking. Two years later, he declared himself the first emperor of the Ming dynasty.

To the Chinese, any people outside their nation were inferior “barbarians” who must submit to the divinely mandated Chinese emperor. As such, in 1372, Chinese emissaries arrived in Okinawa to establish a tributary relationship, offering King Satto the opportunity to formalize trade with China. Satto sent his younger brother, Taiki, to Nanking with appropriate gifts. 

Taiki returned to Okinawa with a high-ranking imperial official who brought valuable books, textiles, ceramics, and ironware to present to King Satto. Most importantly, the official delivered a royal seal and documents granting Satto imperial authority over Chuzan. This began formal trade relations with China, which would endure for 500 years.

Formal trade with China brought prosperity and cultural exchange. Okinawa sent tribute goods such as sulfur and textiles, while the Chinese sent ceramics, ironware, and books. Young Okinawan nobles traveled to Nanking to study, as it was understood that “barbarian” nations had much to learn from China—and learn they did. The students became proficient in the Chinese language, Confucian classics, ethics, history, and poetry.

Both the tribute envoys and these students’ mastery of Chinese court etiquette earned them such distinction that, in later years, a Chinese emperor honored the king with a tablet inscribed with “The Land of Propriety,” acknowledging the correctness of the Ryukyu people’s elegant comportment.

In 1393, a community of Chinese craftsmen and clerks settled on Okinawa, sharing advanced shipbuilding and navigation techniques, and teaching them how to use the compass—an ancient Chinese invention. Alongside these practical skills, they shared the refined arts including the making of paper, ink, and writing brushes. Conversely, Okinawan traders settled at Chuang Chou, integrating influences from Arab, Indian, Thai, and Malay traders that later shaped their indigenous culture.

King Satto died in 1395, leaving the throne to his son, Bunei. However, in 1407, a young aji named Hashi led a rebellion, drove Bunei from Urasoe Castle, and took the throne. In deference to Chinese propriety, Hashi proclaimed his father the King of Chuzan and began reorganizing the administration according to Chinese models.

The First King of Ryukyu, Sho Hashi (Reigned 1422-1439)

Sho Hashi, initially ruling in his father’s stead, rose to power by uniting Okinawa’s three kingdoms—Hokuzan (1416), Nanzan (1429), and Chuzan—creating the Ryukyu Kingdom. The name “Chuzan” came to represent all of Okinawa Island, and the kingdom’s wealth grew through diplomacy and trade rather than military might. Hashi remodeled Shuri Castle after China’s Forbidden City, and it became the center of Ryukyuan political life and a symbol of the kingdom’s strength and connection to China for 450 years.

Despite this political unification, the countryside remained poor. Life for the average Okinawan was hard, leading communities to pool resources in skills and manpower, and developing a strong tradition of mutual aid within families and communities. Called yuimaru, this tradition of helping one another remains an enduring feature of Okinawan culture.

When Hashi’s father died in 1421, Hashi formally ascended the throne. After a year of mourning, he sent an envoy to Ming Emperor Zhu Di. Pleased with Hashi’s loyalty, Zhu Di bestowed upon him the family name “Sho” and the title “King of Ryukyu.” Along with these honors came luxurious gifts, lacquerware, embroidered ceremonial robes, and a great lacquered tablet upon which the Chinese characters for Chuzan were inscribed. This he displayed on Shuri Castle’s elaborate entry gate, where it hung until the 20th century.

Under Sho Hashi’s reign, Chuzan’s administration was overseen by Chinese-educated bureaucrats who adhered to Confucian ethics and political philosophy. As a result, Chuzan’s ties with China strengthened, and trade grew. Shuri, the capital, prospered from the flow of luxury goods purchased in the Indies and Southeast Asia, which were then traded through the port of Naha to China, Korea, and Japan. The savvy Okinawans, avoiding conflict and lacking military power, embraced diplomacy and polite interaction, which became hallmarks of their culture.

In 1439, a trading depot was established at Chuang Chou in Fukien Province, to channel trade to Peking. This depot, with its residences, reception halls, and warehouses, remained in continuous use until 1875. Okinawan students and clerks who studied Chinese language, culture, and institutions at Chuang Chou brought back valuable knowledge that influenced many aspects of life in Okinawa, from tomb architecture to textiles.

Naha became a bustling hub, with a tremendous variety of goods passing through its port. Glazed ceramics from China and earthenware from southern regions were not only used in Okinawa but also sent to Kyoto, where they were prized by tea masters and the shogun’s court. Exotic animals like parrots and peacocks, heavy Chinese brocades, medicinal herbs, coins, and Korean books and ceramics flowed through the city.

Japanese goods, including folding screens, lacquerware, swords, fans, and textiles, were exported to China and other southern ports via Okinawa. From Southeast Asia came pepper, incense, rhinoceros horn, iron, tin, ivory, sugar, and various curiosities gathered by traders.

While all this commerce brought fantastic wealth to Shuri, much of the island’s population remained in poverty. Inspired by the fine Chinese textiles they saw but could not afford, Okinawan peasants created bashofu, a fine gauze woven from the fibers of banana plants. Lightweight and breathable, bashofu proved to be an ideal material for the island’s hot and humid climate. Kasuri, an intricate dyed textile technique from the Indies, was adopted and refined, as well as tie-dying methods. 

Reflecting the intersection of cultures, it came to be that the quality and design of a man’s garments, and how his headgear was folded and wound, became indicators of social rank in Shuri. The British Captain Broughton observed in 1797 that the Okinawan coiffure and turbans were “in the Malay style.” Yet, following the Chinese “cap-rank” system, Okinawan headdresses became symbols of one’s rank within the court hierarchy and were governed by strict rules.

Along with the many goods traded, merchants returning from the Indies, Malaya, and China brought stringed instruments and dance forms, which the Okinawans modified and adapted to express their songs and poetry, further developing their extraordinary and cosmopolitan culture. Sho Hashi’s reign laid the foundation for a unified, culturally vibrant Ryukyu Kingdom.

Sho Shin, “The Golden Years of Chuzan” (1477-1527)

Sho Hashi’s successors faced challenges from local lords, or aji, who still wielded considerable power in their regions. Frequent uprisings threatened the stability of the kingdom. However, when Sho Shin ascended the throne in 1477, he implemented a clever strategy to weaken the ajis’ influence. He ordered that all aji live within the grounds of Shuri Castle, where they enjoyed luxurious lives under the watchful eye of the court. Once the aji were comfortably settled, Sho Shin confiscated their weapons, effectively quelling potential uprisings and consolidating centralized control.

To consolidate religious authority, Sho Shin established the position of kikoe-ogimi, or high priestess of the Ryukyu Kingdom. This role was to be filled exclusively by a member of the royal family, strengthening the central power of the monarchy.

Culturally, Sho Shin’s reign saw the compilation of the Omoro Soshi, the first collection of traditional Ryukyuan poetry and songs. Written in hiragana, it reflected the fusion of indigenous traditions and Chinese cultural influences that characterized Ryukyu’s unique identity. 

Through the reigns of Sho Hashi and Sho Shin, the Ryukyu Kingdom evolved from a fragmented island society into a powerful and culturally rich nation, with the magnificent Shuri Castle as its political and cultural center.

New Agricultural Products

In 1606, an Okinawan sailor brought sweet potatoes back from China and planted them in his yard, unwittingly altering the course of economic development. Within 15 years, this hardy, high-yield crop became a staple food source across the Ryukyu Islands.

In 1623, another important crop entered Okinawa when an envoy to China returned with sugar cane slips which led to the establishment of lucrative sugar production. Sugar—a highly sought-after luxury item—fueled trade with the Satsuma domain of southern Kyushu and met growing demand in the Japanese market. These two crops, sweet potatoes and sugar cane, completely transformed the Kingdom’s agricultural economy.

The Rise of the “Lords of the Southern Islands”—Shimadzu Rule (1609-1872)

When Shunten was just a child in the late 12th century, Japan’s first shogun, Minamoto no Yoritomo, set up his stronghold in far-away Kamakura. He granted Shimadzu Tadahisa the title “Lord of Satsuma” in southern Kyushu, along with the honorary title “Lord of the Southern Islands.” Although this title was largely forgotten for generations, it resurfaced with weighty consequences in the early 17th century.

In 1592, Toyotomi Hideyoshi commanded the Ryukyu King to send troops to support his invasion of Korea and Ming China. Defying this order, the Ryukyu King not only refused but secretly warned the Ming emperor of Hideyoshi’s plans—a move that won him no favor in Japan.

Hideyoshi’s invasion was the last straw for the Ming. In the preceding centuries, Japanese pirates had terrorized the Chinese coastline, and rioting samurai had destroyed the bustling port of Ningpo. In response, the Ming emperor severed formal relations, ending Japan’s trade with their wealthy neighbor.

When Tokugawa Ieyasu unified Japan and became shogun in 1603, he recognized Ryukyu’s strategic importance. The kingdom could serve as both a buffer against Western powers, particularly the Spanish who had seized the Philippines in 1571, and as a covert channel for trade with the Ming.

In 1609, Ieyasu’s son, Tokugawa Hidetaka, ordered the Shimadzu clan of Satsuma to conquer the Ryukyu Kingdom. The peace-loving islanders were no match for the battle-hardened Shimadzu forces, armed with Western matchlock muskets. Shuri Castle was captured within two months, and King Sho Nei was taken in chains to Satsuma, present-day Kagoshima.

From that time onward, the Ryukyu Islands were a possession of the Satsuma domain, truly making the Shimadzu clan the “Lords of the Southern Islands.” However, to facilitate trade with the Ming, the Shimadzu orchestrated a façade of independence. King Sho Nei was restored to his throne, and Ryukyu continued to send tribute to the Ming court as if nothing had changed. But unlike in the kingdom’s golden years, the bulk of Ryukyu’s wealth now flowed into Satsuma’s coffers.

Preserving Culture Under Subjugation

To prevent the Chinese from discovering the Ryukyu Kingdom’s subjugation, the Shimadzu clan enforced strict measures to hide any evidence of Japanese control. All Japanese writing was carefully concealed, and if a Satsuma man was addressed in Japanese by a Chinese official, he had to feign ignorance. The Ryukyu people were also prohibited from adopting Japanese names, clothing, or customs—a policy that, ironically, helped preserve Ryukyuan culture from assimilation.

Under Shimadzu rule, the influence of Chinese culture flourished in Okinawa. New traditions emerged, such as ishigantō stones placed at T-junctions to ward off evil spirits, the construction of kamekō-baka turtleback family crypts, and the placing of shīsā guardian lions on either side of the entrances to residences. From the Meiji Era (1868-1912), shīsā have adorned rooftops as well.

While the Shimadzu profited greatly from trade with China, they also placed heavy demands on the Ryukyu Kingdom, including the requirement to send regular embassies to Edo, further straining the kingdom’s resources. The Shimadzu levied heavy taxes on the Ryukyu government, which passed these burdens onto the distant Sakishima Islands by implementing a poll tax.

Instituted in 1638 and lasting until 1903, the pole tax required all adults between ages 15 and 50 to pay a levy in rice and cloth, regardless of their ability to produce. The amount collected was based on the population of each village, disproportionately affecting farmers. To prevent organized resistance, the kingdom forbade the migration of islanders.

The Shimadzu clan also outlawed weapons, which some scholars believe contributed to the development of karate as a martial art. Originally practiced in secret as a form of self-defense, karate traces its roots to Chinese ti, an ancient form of self-defense that emerged when contact with China brought martial arts to Okinawa. During King Sho Shin’s reign, ti was practiced by aji within Shuri Castle.

The word “ti” is written with the Japanese character for “hand,” the same character used in the “te” of “kara-te,” which means “empty hand.” Karate emphasizes respect, self-discipline, self-control, and the principle of avoiding conflict, qualities easily understood within the context of Ryukyu’s history and culture.

Social Hierarchy and Economic Adjustments

A rigid class system was imposed in the Ryukyu Kingdom. Commoners were prohibited from wearing silk or carrying umbrellas, while aristocrats were barred from farming or craftsmanship. The top noblemen in Shuri occupied the most lucrative positions in government administration and had access to the best education and cultural opportunities. Meanwhile, the peasantry struggled to survive through subsistence agriculture.

As revenue from international trade fed the Shimadzu treasury, the kingdom turned to new sources of income, such as the production and export of unrefined sugar and its newest product, turmeric. In 1667, a smithy was established in each district, and two years later, an improved cane-crushing machine was developed to boost sugar production. Additional land was cleared and cultivated for these new crops. However, because sugar production for export proved more profitable than growing sweet potatoes and grains for local consumption, farmers switched to growing sugar, and the kingdom’s reserve of storable food gradually dwindled.

To address this imbalance, the government mandated a cap of about 678 hectares (1,675 acres) for sugarcane cultivation, aiming to redirect land back to food production. Saltworks were developed, a tea commissioner’s office was established to supervise tea production, and forest management was introduced. Despite these measures, natural disasters often undermined food security, leaving the kingdom vulnerable to famine.

In tandem with these economic changes, the Ryukyu government sought to promote Confucianism, a philosophy that faced resistance from the kingdom’s traditional noro priestesses. In 1667, the rank of the chief noro priestess was downgraded to a status below that of the queen and the prime minister. The role of her assistant, the priestess responsible for divination, was abolished.

Additionally, the centuries-old tradition of the king visiting major noro religious shrines on Kudaka Island was replaced with a new custom where the king’s son offered incense annually before the tablets of Confucius.

Sai On’s Reforms: Revitalizing the Ryukyu Islands (in office 1712–1762)

After a decade of fires, famines, earthquakes, and calamitous storms at the beginning of the 18th century, Okinawa desperately struggled for economic survival. Onto this stage stepped Sai On, a Chinese-educated advisor to the king, under whose leadership the islands achieved unprecedented levels of production and growth.

Sai On encouraged “Dutch learning”—the study of Western books concerning science, medicine, and mechanical arts. He appointed Satsuma-trained doctors to serve at Shuri Castle and the Sakishima Islands, to oversee public health and care for shipwrecked sailors.

He also championed the arts and crafts, granting privileges and stipends to outstanding artists and craftsmen, be they dancers, musicians, or comb makers. He extended new honors to the elderly and elevated creative pursuits across all classes.

Sai On improved administration by dispatching officers to 35 districts to govern the populace and promote tea and plantain cultivation, the latter a valuable source of bashofu textile fiber. He initiated environmental reforms, constructing new irrigation canals and implementing conservation and reforestation projects.

To preserve old-growth trees, Sai On banned the construction of dugout canoes and discouraged the felling of smaller trees essential for protecting watersheds on steep slopes. Villagers were taught to plant windbreaks along the shore and trees on hillsides to reduce erosion caused by strong winds and heavy rain.

Under Sai On’s guidance, metal casting techniques were improved, making common tools more efficient. Kilns were built using coral and shells to produce building materials, and ink sticks and paper production expanded. He also established grain storage warehouses and honored farmers who harvested two sweet potato crops annually. Unfortunately, after Sai On died in 1791, no one arose to fill his shoes, and the progress he had achieved was gradually lost.  

Western Encounters and the Opening of Ryukyu—the 19th Century

The 19th century brought drastic changes to the Ryukyu Kingdom as Western ships increasingly frequented its waters and anchored in its ports. Western seamen were inevitably received with the elaborate formality that the Okinawans considered a hallmark of their culture. Visitors noted the absence of arms and violence, the dignity, courtesy, and friendliness of all classes, the intelligence and cultivated manners of the aristocracy, and the honesty and lack of theft throughout the islands.

In 1853, on his way to Edo (Tokyo), US Navy Commodore Matthew Perry anchored at Naha harbor and insisted on visiting the Royal Palace at Shuri Castle. The Okinawans tried to dissuade him; the king was a young boy, and his accession had yet to be confirmed by the Chinese Emperor, while the queen dowager was ill and could not be seen. The regent politely invited Perry to dine at his residence instead, but Perry dismissed the offer. For weeks, while Perry stayed on his ship, a contingent of his men took up residence in a community center despite the Okinawans’ refusal to grant them permission.

Eventually, Perry, carried in a colorful palanquin and accompanied by some 200 men, including artillery units and a marching band, approached Shuri Castle with great pomp and ceremony. Upon reaching the castle, the guards—likely intimidated by the show of force—opened the gates, allowing Perry’s men to triumphantly enter the deserted castle.

Rooms were hastily prepared. The Americans sat along one wall, facing the regent, and his officials on the other. The boy king and his mother never appeared. After this tense and awkward encounter, the regent once again invited Perry to dine at his residence, and this time, Perry accepted. He and his men were treated to a 12-course feast, and when they departed two hours later, the Okinawans were much relieved.

Perry left Okinawa temporarily to claim the Bonin Islands for the United States. Upon his return, he found that the regent was no longer in power. Perry invited the new regent to dine with him in his quarters on his ship, which he accepted. Despite being instructed by President Millard Fillmore to “act only with the consent of the natives,” Perry resorted to threats when his request for a building to store coal was denied. He declared that he and 200 of his men would seize Shuri Castle. The Okinawans, facing no viable alternative, acquiesced.

In 1864, the Ryukyuan King Sho Tai sought formal investiture from China, culminating in the final ceremonial visit of Chinese envoys after 500 years of tradition. Meanwhile, dramatic change loomed in Japan. In 1867, the Meiji Emperor ascended the throne, ending 264 years of Tokugawa shogunate rule. With the dawn of the Meiji Era in 1868, Japan began its rapid modernization and expansion, setting its sights on consolidating control over neighboring territories, including the once-independent Ryukyu Kingdom.

The Assimilation of the Ryukyu Kingdom, the Meiji Era (1868-1912)

The Meiji era saw sweeping modernization as Japan adopted Western industrial, military, and educational. The country underwent significant social, political, and economic changes, including the establishment of a constitutional government, the expansion of infrastructure, and a shift from an agrarian to an industrial economy. Feudal domains were replaced with prefectures, and daimyo gave way to governors.

Amid this transformation, Japan sought to fully integrate the Ryukyu Kingdom. After Ryukyu was declared a feudal domain in 1871, the islands from Yoron to Kyushu were transferred to Kagoshima Prefecture. In 1879, Okinawa and the southern Ryukyu Islands were formally annexed, becoming Okinawa Prefecture.

Mainland Japanese bureaucrats were sent to take up government positions, and Ryukyu’s last king, Sho Tai, was ordered to Tokyo. For the first time in 500 years, Shuri Castle ceased to be the seat of authority and the symbol of Ryukyuan nationhood as the king reluctantly left his palace, walking solemnly through the Gate of National Learning. The acting governor, appointed from Tokyo, would now operate from Naha.

Assimilation policies followed. Japanese was made the standard language, speaking local dialects was banned, and the noro priestesses were compelled to conform to the national religion, Shinto. Okinawan schools adopted the standard Japanese curriculum. Students caught speaking the Ryukyu language were publicly shamed. Even civil servants were fined if they were caught speaking the Ryukyu language at work. Okinawans faced growing pressure to prove their “Japaneseness,” leading to a divide in attitudes toward assimilation. Some resented what they saw as the colonization of their homeland, while others welcomed it as a path to modernity and prosperity.

Okinawans who moved to mainland Japan faced discrimination and often found it necessary to hide their roots. On the mainland, they were typically viewed as unsophisticated country folk, while Okinawans, in turn, looked upon the inhabitants of the Sakishima Islands as even more “backward.” The Sakishima Islanders were treated as lesser subjects, still carrying the burden of the poll tax and also now being used as penal colonies for Okinawan convicts.

Sugar production expanded to meet growing Japanese demand, often at the expense of farmland previously used for food crops. This shift made Okinawans dependent on an export market over which they had no control. Sugar plantations expanded as far as the Sakishima Islands.

The granting of suffrage highlighted inequalities. Okinawan men gained the right to vote in 1912, but Sakishima Islanders had to wait until 1919. Unlike regions like Taiwan or Hokkaido, Okinawa lacked resources and attracted few settlers; by the end of the Meiji era, only 6,000 Japanese expatriates lived there—roughly 1% of Okinawa’s population—reflecting Okinawa’s marginal status within the empire.

The Militarization of Okinawa

From the Imperial Army’s perspective, the Ryukyu Islands were a critical link between Formosa (the Japanese colony of Taiwan) and mainland Japan. Yet, Okinawans were considered unfit for military service as the average adult male did not meet the minimum height and weight requirements. The older generation vehemently opposed militarization, fearing it would invite attacks. Unlike the samurai of the mainland, Okinawans had no history of close combat; they were peace-loving traders and experts in diplomacy, not warriors.

However, after Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, Okinawans began to be enlisted. Fitness programs were implemented throughout the islands, and towns with the most conscripts were honored. Military leaders sought to instill a fanatic spirit in the islanders to compensate for their small stature.

Over time, civilians were being “voluntarily” compelled to contribute time, labor, and money to support military preparations. Children were subjected to intense propaganda, designed to inspire admiration for Japanese soldiers’ heroic deeds, especially after the invasion of China in 1931. Like children throughout Japan, the youths of Okinawa were being prepared to do their utmost for the Emperor.

As the Ryukyu Islands formed a defensive barrier for the Japanese mainland, five airfields were built on the flat, infertile fields of Miyako Island in the south. By WWII’s end, three divisions of Japanese soldiers—outnumbering the local population—were stationed there. The islanders, unable to communicate with these mainland soldiers, were forced to bow to every military figure and endure privation as the occupying forces requisitioned their meager resources.

Following the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Imperial Japanese forces swept across Southeast Asia, pushing to the borders of India and seizing islands throughout the South Pacific. Centered in their puppet state of Manchukuo in northeast China, The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere was beginning to take shape, with the Japanese envisioning a future where the region would thrive under their so-called “benevolent” leadership. Fueled by a belief in their racial purity, fighting spirit, and superior culture, the Japanese were convinced of their destined success. Every subject was prepared to make the ultimate sacrifice for the emperor, assured that their cause was invincible.

Steeped in propaganda and pro-government censored media, it was hard for the public to understand the extent of Japan’s 1942 defeat at Midway, then at Guadalcanal and Saipan. In Tokyo, some realized that Japan had overextended itself; the economy could not sustain a prolonged conflict, and the nation’s industrial base was inadequate for the demands of a long war. Additionally, Army leaders had grossly underestimated the strength of the US military.

As the war dragged on, Japan’s Navy suffered a disastrous defeat at Leyte Gulf in 1944. Back home, as firebombing devastated over 50 Japanese cities, the leadership faced a dire choice: surrender and preserve the mainland or resist and risk annihilation.

In spite of the increasing inevitability of defeat, Japan’s military leaders clung to the belief that the “national spirit” would prevail over material deficiencies and that kamikaze, or divine winds, would once again save Japan from its enemies. In this desperate gamble, they chose to offer Okinawa as a sacrificial pawn, hoping to buy time to strengthen Japan’s mainland defenses.

The Battle of Okinawa

By February 1944, as Allied forces approached Japan, Okinawa lay in the path of invasion. Prefectural officers sent their families to safety, Martial Law was declared, and those with the means fled to Formosa or Kyushu. Despite the looming threat, Tokyo made no effort to prepare the local population for the inevitable attack, viewing Okinawa as a distant buffer to delay the enemy.

Civilians were conscripted to construct build defenses, homes were seized by soldiers, and centuries-old pines that once lined Okinawa’s highways were stripped away. In a bid to save Ryukyu’s treasures, the Custodian of Treasures of the Sho family gathered ancient crowns, rare Chinese musical instruments, royal portraits, robes of state, ceramics, jewelry, and invaluable texts and hid them within the strongholds of Shuri Castle. However, within weeks, the custodian’s estate was consumed by fire, and the Imperial Army occupied the castle grounds.

On April 1, 1945, American forces landed near Kadena, about a third of the way up Okinawa Island. To their surprise, they faced little resistance as they rapidly advanced to the eastern shore, splitting the island. Civilians fled north, unprotected and terrified by Imperial propaganda about American atrocities. By May 5, the northern part of Okinawa had fallen under American control. 

Meanwhile, the top-ranking Imperial officer, General Ushijima, had made his headquarters behind the ancient, strong walls of Shuri Castle. Concentrating his troops behind a large escarpment that crossed the island between Shuri and Kadena, his strategy was to draw the American forces under these craggy heights, unleash a powerful crossfire, and hold off the Americans until reinforcements could arrive from Japan.

The war intensified, with kamikaze suicide bombers from Kyushu attacking the American fleet, causing significant damage but failing to disrupt the fleet’s operations. Onshore, the American forces approached General Ushijima’s defenses, leading to one of the heaviest artillery battles of the war. Yet, despite the relentless bombardment, Shuri Castle’s 500-year-old walls held firm.

On May 24, the battleship USS Mississippi began a massive barrage against the castle walls. For three days, the bombardment continued until the once-magnificent ancient castle was reduced to ruins, its formidable walls crumbled into rubble.

On May 31, General Ushijima withdrew from his shelter in the caves beneath Shuri to a cave on the southern coast. Although the retreating Japanese fought with unparalleled ferocity from cave to cave, organization and discipline had disintegrated. The Imperial forces chose death over surrender but with utter disregard for the civilians trapped among them.

Terrified locals, including the wounded and sick, sought refuge in caves, but these sanctuaries offered little safety. In many instances, civilians were driven out into the open, caught in the crossfire as Imperial troops took over the caves. Civilians were forced to share their caves with soldiers who used them as firing positions, drawing American fire.

Naha fell to the US forces on June 13. Early in the morning of June 21, Lieutenant General Ushijima and his chief of staff, facing the humiliation of defeat, went to the ledges overlooking the southern sea, saluted the emperor in distant Tokyo, and took their own lives.

War’s Heart-wrenching Toll on Okinawan Civilians

The Battle of Okinawa inflicted unparalleled suffering on its civilian population, with casualties exceeding those of both American and Japanese forces combined. Under Imperial Japanese indoctrination, Okinawans were taught that it was more honorable to die than face the “shame” of capture. Reinforcing this fatalistic mindset, civilians were often given two grenades—one to kill the enemy and the other to take their own lives.

Strict military control and relentless propaganda fostered an atmosphere of fear. Anyone caught speaking English or even using local dialects was executed for suspected espionage. Those urging surrender were summarily killed. Civilians were warned of horrific consequences if captured, including torture, rape, and execution. As the American soldiers drew near, these terrifying warnings triggered mass suicides across Okinawa. Imperial soldiers instructed civilians to avoid capture at all costs, with mothers urged to kill their children and then themselves rather than fall into enemy hands.

In the final, bloody months of World War II, the islanders faced unimaginable horror. The sounds of hand grenades exploding and people screaming echoed through the trees. Families, fearing capture, turned on each other when grenades failed to detonate. In their desperation, they resorted to strangling one another, bludgeoning loved ones to death with farming tools, or hanging themselves. Many of the victims in these horrific acts were children. There are accounts of parents even chasing after their fleeing children to carry out the dreadful act.

The tragic impact of this indoctrination is captured in survivor accounts, such as that of Mr. Komine. His family, resigned to their fate as American forces landed, formed a circle to be executed by his father. Mr. Komine watched in horror as his father bludgeoned his mother and siblings, before he was stuck. After the killings, his father hanged himself from a tree. Against all odds, Mr. Komine was rescued by US troops and survived. 

Despite the widespread fear, many civilians hiding in caves were eventually driven by hunger or desperation to emerge. Bracing for poison or brutal treatment, they were astonished to be given water, food, and medical care by the Americans.

The staggering toll of the battle is commemorated at the Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum on the Cornerstone of Peace monument, which lists 242,046 names as of 2023. This includes 149,634 Okinawans, 77,823 Imperial Japanese soldiers, 14,010 Americans, 381 South Koreans, 82 North Koreans, 82 from the United Kingdom, and 34 Taiwanese.

Okinawa remained under US occupation after World War II until the prefecture was returned to Japan in 1972. First governed by the Military Government of the Ryukyu Islands from 1945 to 1950, and then by the Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands. It remains the US military’s main stronghold in East Asia.

The Sakishima Islands

The Miyako Islands 

• Ikema Island
• Irabu Island
• Kurima Island
• Miyako Island
• Ōgami Island
• Shimoji Island
• Tarama Island
• Minna Island 

The Yaeyama Islands

• Ishigaki Island
• Aragusuku Island
• Hateruma Island
• Iriomote Island
• Kohama Island 
• Kuroshima Island
• Taketomi Island
• Yubu Island
• Yonaguni Island

Sakishima Early History

Shimotabaru era (2,500 to 500 BC)

Archaeological sites across the Sakishima Islands provide windows into early human activity, one of the most remarkable being the Shirahosaonetabaru site on the grounds of Ishigaki Airport. Dating back to 25,000 BC, it holds Japan’s oldest recognized tomb, where bodies were left exposed to the elements rather than buried. Bones of deer, wild boar, and other animals found at the site indicate they were part of the early diet. DNA analysis links these early inhabitants to southern China and Vietnam, with cultural ties to Indonesia and Melanesia evident in agriculture, fishing, and plank-built boats.

Artifacts such as pottery and stone tools, dating back as early as 8,000 BC, highlight Sakishima’s unique culture, distinct from those of Okinawa and Taiwan. Human remains and artifacts from 2,500-1,500 BC were discovered at 15 sites across the islands. These include earthenware, stone axes, polished stones, drills, and shell tools, which show similarities to those from southern China and Taiwan, suggesting cultural interchange.

The No-Pottery Era (500 BC-about 1250 AD) and International Trade

From around 500 BC to the 13th century, the Sakishima Islands experienced a “non-pottery period,” a rare culture that didn’t produce pottery. Instead, people relied on stone furnaces to steam food, made axes from giant clam shells, and crafted disc-shaped shell pendants. These artifacts bear a striking resemblance to those found in Oceania and the Philippines, hinting at broader cultural connections.

Even with their simple hunter-gatherer lifestyle, trade with mainland China had already begun, evidenced by Tang dynasty (618–907) coins found on Iriomote and Ishigaki Islands. Trade introducing Chinese white porcelain, soapstone cauldrons, and kamuiyaki stoneware from the northern Ryukyus, brought an end to the No-Pottery Era. The islanders transitioned to agriculture, cultivating grains, raising cattle, and producing their own pottery. The large amounts of southern Chinese porcelain from the 13th–14th centuries, absent in mainland Japan and Okinawa, underscore the separateness of Sakishima trade routes.

Artifacts from sites like the Omarihama shell mound on Hateruma Island reveal foreign influence, including Chinese jade-rimmed porcelain bowls, Nagasaki-made stone pots (so valuable that four were worth as much as one cow), and kamuiyaki, illustrate Sakishima’s expanding trade connections.

Agriculture, Trade, and Social Dynamics—the Gusuku Period (13th to 16th centuries)

Between the 12th and 14th centuries, agriculture became central to life on the Sakishima Islands, with foxtail millet, barley, and wheat becoming their staple crops. By 1390, the Sakishima lord began sending tribute to King Satto on Okinawa, as the islands grew in importance as way-stations for trading ships en route to Southeast Asia and the East Indies. 

Despite their role in trade, the Sakishima Islanders lagged technologically. In the 14th century, they had limited access to metal tools, minimal shipbuilding knowledge, and relied on rudimentary farming techniques. This technological disparity left them about two centuries behind Okinawa Island, perhaps contributing to the traditionally condescending attitude of Okinawans toward the Sakishima people. However, by the late 14th century, the Sakishima Islands began transitioning from their prehistoric era to a period of development.

The reign of Sho Hashi (1422-1439) ushered in an age of prosperity. Miyako and Yaeyama became vital ports for ships navigating between Naha and the Indies, following routes that kept vessels within sight of land. Historical records reflect the region’s growing stability and reputation. A Korean account from 1477 describes Yonaguni Island as peaceful, free from theft and conflict, where shipwrecked Koreans found refuge and kindness.

In the late 15th century, a long-standing rivalry between Miyako and Yaeyama escalated when Akahachi, the powerful chief of Yaeyama, plotted to invade Miyako. Nakasone Toyomioya, Miyako’s leader, launched a preemptive invasion, defeated Akahachi and continued to Yonaguni Island, where he overpowered the local chieftain, Untura, and took his daughter as a prize.

Upon returning to Miyako, Nakasone faced a new and greater threat: a 3,000-man force sent by Chuzan king Sho Shin to subjugate Miyako. Realizing the futility of resistance, Nakasone negotiated a peaceful surrender that spared his people from destruction.

In recognition of his leadership, Sho Shin appointed him Miyako’s chieftain, and by 1510, all the Sakishima Islands were under Chuzan control. Today, Nakasone is honored as a local hero, revered at the principal shrine on Miyako for his wisdom and leadership in navigating both war and peace. In 1532, Shuri consolidated its authority by appointing a royal magistrate as governor of Miyako.

In the late 16th century, Miyako’s status rose after a local man’s skillful recovery of a wrecked Chinese ship earned praise from the Chinese court. The emperor sent a commendation to the king at Shuri, who rewarded the man with land and a noble title. In gratitude, the man’s wife developed a refined weaving technique, producing what became known as Miyako Jofu, sending it as a gift to the Shuri court in 1584.

The exquisite Miyako Jofu quickly became a prized export, rivaling sugar—introduced around 1597—as a key commodity. Together with mother-of-pearl inlay shells, these goods became essential tax items demanded by Shuri court, which exported them to Satsuma for wider distribution throughout Japan.

Miyako sailors gained a reputation for being the most skilled and resilient, bolstering Miyako’s role in communication and trade with China. While Miyako thrived during this period, the Yaeyama Islands experienced slower development.

The Poll Tax and the Sakishima Agreement

Three decades after the Satsuma clan invaded the Ryukyu Kingdom, the Ryukyu government imposed a harsh poll tax on the Sakishima islanders. Unlike Japan’s tribute system based on land area, the Ryukyu poll tax targeted individuals aged 15 to 50, requiring contributions of rice or cloth regardless of physical ability or means. Although originally assessed when individuals reached a height of 143 cm, marked by “poll tax stones,” the tax was later applied universally regardless of height, even to the disabled and pregnant women. Payments were expected even after natural disasters, plunging communities into perpetual hardship.

The burden of the poll tax led to disturbing consequences: the elderly who could no longer work were sometimes killed or driven to suicide, while pregnant women, fearing that increasing the population would worsen their family’s tax burden, sometimes threw themselves from cliffs. Yonaguni Island’s Kuburabari Cliff is infamous as a site from which desperate women leaped to their deaths.

Adding insult to injury, in 1880, Japan proposed ceding the Sakishima Islands to China in exchange for trade concessions and retaining the northern Ryukyu Islands. The agreement, signed on October 31, completely ignored the views of the islanders. However, suspicion among Chinese officials stalled ratification, and Japan, frustrated by delays, ultimately withdrew the offer, keeping the islands under its control.

The Sakishima people endured relentless external pressures, from oppressive domestic policies to international power plays, with scant regard for their well-being or sovereignty. The trend would continue.

Iriomote Island

Although 80% of Iriomote is mountainous, the island is blessed with abundant fresh water, making it ideal for rice cultivation. It is a natural haven for diverse wildlife, including the critically endangered Iriomote Wildcat, a leopard subspecies with only about 100 remaining. Lucky visitors might glimpse one hunting at dusk or early morning along the northern coast. Wild boar roam the mountains, and cattle graze on the island’s pastures, but despite its natural resources, Iriomote has been slow to develop, and its people have faced dire hardships.

It is not known when humans first settled on Iriomote Island, but shell middens along the coast indicate the presence of small hunter-gatherer communities in the 5th century. These early inhabitants relied on the island’s rich natural resources, using stone chisels, crafting beads from stones, and making accessories from shells, typical of the southern region. By the late 15th century, Korean castaways described the islanders as wearing stone bead necklaces and black wooden nose rings, with blacksmiths producing only small plows for garden tilling, reflecting a simple society with no mention of powerful overlords.

This changed when Nakasone Toyomioya from Miyako Island invaded, establishing the first powerful clan on Iriomote. Under his influence, agricultural practices on Iriomote gradually improved. However, the island soon came under the control of the Ryukyu Kingdom, which established trading rights and consolidated its authority over the island.

Subjugated Iriomote

Under Ryukyu government officials, along with the egregious poll tax, a structured administration was established that laid the groundwork for agricultural development. Recognizing Iriomote’s potential for rice cultivation with its numerous rivers and fertile lowlands, the government forcibly relocated people from surrounding islands to develop paddies. Others came voluntarily, hoping to grow rice to meet their tax burdens. Traces of these early settlements remain along the island’s southern coast.

Settlers, however, faced adversities. Malaria outbreaks decimated entire communities, triggering a cycle of forced relocations to replace the dead—only for the new arrivals to meet the same fate. This tragic pattern persisted for centuries.

A visit to the remnants of these rice fields reveals the harsh conditions settlers endured. Most were small plots cleared along narrow rivers and encircled by boar fences. While some settlers were fortunate enough to receive already developed paddies, many were forced to clear and prepare the fields themselves. All this, while grappling with the debilitating effects of malaria.

The brutal forced labor and malaria-related suffering on Iriomote Island continued until the mid-Meiji Era, when a successful liberation movement on Miyako Island ended the abuses there, eventually bringing about the emancipation of the people of Yaeyama.  A samurai visiting from Aomori documented the ruination caused by malaria. His records mention villages that have since disappeared, their populations entirely wiped out. Despite these grim conditions, mainland Japanese authorities were about to thrust a new ordeal upon the islanders—coal mining. 

But before that, they were hit with disaster.

The Great Tsunami of 1771

On April 24, 1771, the day began like any other for the inhabitants of the Sakishima islands. However, at 8:00 AM the quiet was shattered by a thunderous noise from the east and a violent shaking of the ground. The tide ebbed to the reef, and ominous towering waves loomed like dark clouds before surging toward the islands.

A 7.4-magnitude earthquake had struck 40 kilometers (25 miles) east of Ishigaki Island, triggering waves over 30 meters high (98 feet) that inundated Ishigaki, flooding 40% of the island, and burying the coastline in sand and coral debris. Across the Sakishima Islands, wave heights ranged from 7 to 15 meters (23-50 feet), with Miyako Island hit by three surges as high as 10 meters (33 feet).

The tsunami claimed over 12,000 lives. In the Yaeyama archipelago, 9,313 people—32% of its inhabitants—lost their lives, and 2,000 houses were destroyed. On Miyako Island, four villages were destroyed, and 2,548 people perished. On Ishigaki, 48% of the population died.

Beyond the immediate loss of life and homes, the tsunami brought long-term suffering. Salinified farmland, contaminated water, and destroyed livestock led to famine lasting 80 years, compounded by outbreaks of dysentery, malaria, and plagues of blood-sucking flies. Despite these hardships, the islanders struggled to rebuild their lives while continuing to bear the heavy burden of the poll tax.

Today, the Bari Stone on eastern Ishigaki Island is a stark reminder of this catastrophe. This massive 216-ton coral boulder, measuring 9x7x4 meters (30x23x13 feet), was carried inland by the tsunami and is recognized as the world’s largest displaced coral boulder.

Iriomote Coal Mining

The Ryukyuan government, under Shimadzu clan rule, concealed the presence of valuable coal deposits on Iriomote Island. They feared that if the Shimadzu learned about the coal, they would exploit the mines and deprive the Ryukyu government of its rightful resources. In 1854, they even ordered trees planted around the mines to hide their location. However, their efforts were undone when some inhabitants of Ishigaki Island sold the secret to Satsuma merchants, opening the door to mainland mining companies.

When Okinawa became a Japanese prefecture in 1879, coal mining on Iriomote accelerated under the Meiji government. Mitsui Bussan Company began operations, using over 100 prisoners from Okinawa island to keep labor costs low and sidestep the risks posed by malaria. This allowed coal production to continue without disrupting poll tax collection, which continued to be paid in goods produced by the islanders.

Mining conditions were harsh and dangerous. Workers, lured by promises of abundant fruit and an easy life, were met with grueling labor and rampant malaria. Many attempted to escape, but few succeeded. A major malaria outbreak in 1889 temporarily halted operations, yet Iriomote’s coal industry continued to expand, attracting both large and small companies.

During the Meiji era, driven by the slogan “Enrich the country, strengthen the military,” the government sought to “imperialize” the remote Sakishima Islands as part of its modernization and imperial expansion. They imposed Japanese education, banned local dialects, and continued to use prison labor to extract coal, which was used for military purposes and exported to Hong Kong and China.

Even after the poll tax was abolished in 1903, few islanders became coal miners. Instead, the labor force was largely composed of men from Shikoku, Kyushu, Okinawa, and Taiwan. Many were lured or coerced into relocating to Iriomote, only to find themselves trapped in harsh conditions. They endured perilous work, crawling through narrow tunnels with coal veins that ranged from just 15 to 90cm (20 inches to 3 feet) thick. Today, few descendants of these miners remain, and the history of the mines is rarely discussed.

The natural harbor at Funauki Bay in western Iriomote drew the Japanese government’s interest for its potential military value. After General Heihachiro Togo inspected the area in 1905, the government fortified the bay and forcibly evacuated the residents of Funauki too make way for military installations.

The influx of miners and mining companies drastically altered the lives of the islanders. Locals began trading rice, vegetables, wild boar, and fish with the miners in exchange for coal mine tickets, which became a de facto currency at the mine stores to buy mainland goods, services,  and brothel visits.The new mining economy led to the decline of traditional industries, such as weaving fine cloth, which had previously been essential for paying the poll tax. With increased reliance on imports, many traditional skills disappeared.

In 1935, the Marumitsu Mining Company discovered thick coal seams along the Utara River, a tributary of the Urauchi River in northwest Iriomote. Mining began the following year, and the company constructed accommodations for 400 single workers and more than ten houses for couples. The Utara Mine contained two main coal seams, one 60cm (2ft) thick and the other 40cm (16in) thick. Initially, transported by mine cart, coal was later moved by boats carrying 20–30 tons down the Utara River. By 1938, the mine was producing an impressive 2,500 tons of coal per month.

Compared to other mines, the worker facilities at Utara were relatively advanced and included glass windows to reduce malaria risks, large bathrooms, reliable water supplies, and an on-site doctor. A 300-seat theater, an elementary school, and community festivals provided entertainment and education for workers and their families. At its peak, the mine employed over 1,000 workers. However, mine overseers were notorious for their harsh discipline, and brutal methods were used to prevent escapes.

During World War II, coal demand surged, but mining ceased in 1943 when workers were conscripted into the Imperial Army. Post-war, the Americans briefly reopened the mines in 1953, but extracting coal from thin seams proved difficult and unprofitable. The mines were permanently closed in 1960.

Meanwhile, on neighboring Ishigaki Island, large tracts of land were granted to profiteers for sugar cane plantations, creating a tenant farming system that sparked opposition from residents. In response, the Okinawan government implemented an emigration plan, sending workers from other islands to farm sugar cane on Ishigaki.

A similar initiative brought settlers from Aragusuku Island to Iriomote, where they faced severe hardships, including malaria and hunger, as they carved out land to grow sugar cane. Despite their relentless efforts, these settlers were denied land ownership after the war due to government changes. Having invested years of backbreaking labor, they were left landless, compounding their already dire situation.

As the Pacific War escalated, many islanders were evacuated to Taiwan, while those who remained were forcibly relocated to the malaria-infested mountains of Iriomote. This relocation led to a devastating outbreak known as “war malaria,” adding to the suffering of an already beleaguered population.

War Malaria—Survivors’ Stories

(Translated and edited from the original Japanese article found here.)

The Yaeyama Islands, part of the Sakishima Islands, include Ishigaki Island, Taketomi Island, and Hateruma Island—the southernmost inhabited island in Japan. Unlike the main island of Okinawa, where fierce battles raged during World War II, no US forces landed on the Yaeyama Islands. As a result, direct war casualties, such as those from air raids, were relatively low, numbering 178. However, the Japanese Imperial Army’s forced evacuation of residents to malaria-infested mountainous areas led to an epidemic outbreak that claimed 3,647 lives.

Life during this period was grueling. Ms. Yamasato, then a child, vividly recalls the suffering. In April 1945, her family was evacuated to a makeshift mountain hut her grandfather had built. Soon after their arrival, she and her mother fell ill with malaria.

“I was so cold in my bones that I slept with my mother in my arms,” she recounted. “There was no bedding, so we covered ourselves with clothes. My spleen was swollen, and my stomach was distended.”

Malaria causes severe symptoms, including high fever, headache, and vomiting. Without access to quinine, the primary treatment at the time, the disease proved fatal for many. While Ms. Yamasato eventually recovered, her mother’s condition worsened, and she passed away. “I was only seven years old,” she said. “I didn’t fully understand the loss, but I know now that if there had been no war, my mother might still be alive.”

In June 1945, the Japanese military ordered further evacuations into the mountains, where 20 to 30 people crammed into small huts near mosquito-infested streams. Lacking medicine, they burned mugwort and drank its juice in a desperate attempt to repel mosquitoes. Ms. Yamasato’s family managed to escape, but her grandfather contracted malaria and died shortly after the war ended.

Reflecting on these events, she said, “When war breaks out, the military does not protect the people. I know this firsthand.”

* * * * * * * * * *

Another survivor, Mr. Yamane, recalls the harrowing events of June 1945. At just 15 years old, he was sent from Okinawa to Ishigaki Island and ordered to evacuate to the mountains. Shortly after, both he and his mother fell ill with malaria. Without access to medical care, his mother died without treatment.

A week before her death, she urged him, “You must not die; ask your uncle to help you.” Following her passing, a weak and emaciated Mr. Yamane hobbled to his uncle’s house leaning on a cane. Although the house wasn’t far, the journey was arduous. Had his uncle not taken him in, he believes he would have died on the street.

The malaria outbreak claimed lives at an alarming rate. Graves filled quickly, and burials and cremations could not keep pace. Mr. Yamane himself helped bury relatives in nearby fields.

“It really was hell,” Mr. Yamane said, reflecting on the tragedy. “War malaria is a painful chapter in Yaeyama’s history, and many don’t talk about it. But now, with the world once again facing the threat of war, it’s time to speak out.”

* * * * * * * * * *

During the war, more than half of Yaeyama’s 31,000 residents suffered from malaria, and over 20% of the population died. The death rate reached 27% in some sections of Ishigaki Island. On Hateruma Island, approximately one-third of the residents, evacuated to Iriomote, died from the disease.

After the war, the US military introduced the antimalarial drug Atebrin to Yaeyama. Under the Allied Forces’ General Headquarters (GHQ), the Yaeyama Civil Government and its Health Department launched a comprehensive malaria eradication campaign. Efforts included distribution surveys, epidemiological studies, chemical spraying, and administering preventive medications. Checkpoints ensured that anyone foraging in the mountains took Atebrin beforehand.

With the combined efforts of residents, government, and US military authorities, malaria was eradicated from the Yaeyama Islands in 1962.

Post-war Agriculture

After the war, many emigrants forcibly relocated to Iriomote Island returned to Miyako Island, only to face severe shortages of housing and food. The island’s pine forests, once a vital resource for lumber, had been destroyed during the war, leaving the land barren.

To address these issues, the Miyako Archipelago government obtained permission from the Southern Ryukyu military government to harvest timber near Funauki on Iriomote Island. Emigrants undertook this work, relying on provisions from the overseeing company. However, as they were sent by the local rather than central government, they were denied these supplies. Despite this, settlers supported one another and persevered through hardships, including recurring bouts of malaria. Over time, they became the primary agricultural workers on Iriomote Island, eventually driving the development of pineapple and mango farming in the island’s western region.

Meanwhile, rice cultivation on Iriomote, once central to paying the poll tax, declined. Fertile rice fields deep in river valleys—once accessible only by boat—were abandoned due to lack of road access. Their remote nature made it impractical to bring in large farming machinery, leaving the fields fallow.

Sugarcane dominates agriculture in eastern Iriomote, while pineapples are the main crop in the west. In recent years, production of both crops has been declining, mirroring trends on Taketomi Island. The decline in sugarcane is largely due to an aging workforce, with many older workers opting to convert fields into pastureland. On Ishigaki Island, the situation is exacerbated by land acquisitions for resort development by mainland investors.

Sugarcane and pineapple production differ in processing and distribution. Nearly all sugarcane is processed locally into brown sugar, while pineapples, lacking a processing facility on the island, must be shipped raw outside the prefecture. Pineapple farming faces additional challenges from an aging workforce and labor shortages, leaving fields overrun with weeds and reducing overall productivity. Reliance on low-paid, rotating agricultural interns for fieldwork has proven ineffective, perpetuating low wages and failing to ensure the long-term viability of pineapple production.

Yet Iriomote pineapples, known for their exceptional sweetness, have strong market potential. However, transportation poses another obstacle. Fresh pineapples, with their short shelf life, rely on air transport, but only two daily flights connect Iriomote to Osaka and Tokyo, limiting shipment volume. Farmers are left to manage orders individually, struggling to meet demand during the peak summer season. Residents are pushing for a dedicated cargo plane to address this bottleneck.

Beyond crops, Japanese black cattle contribute 40% of Iriomote’s gross agricultural production value. However, environmental constraints have capped further expansion of ranching. Despite these challenges, Iriomote retains its pristine wilderness, a defining feature of the island.

Okinawa’s Ongoing Struggles

Government policies have historically prioritized mainland Japan’s welfare and economic growth over Okinawa’s needs, leaving the prefecture grappling with a legacy of occupation, repression, and militarization. With its large US military presence, critics argue Okinawa continues to serve mainland interests at its own expense.

The prefecture’s poverty rate is around 35%, twice the national average, with per capita income 20% lower. It also faces the nation’s highest rates of unemployment, irregular employment, and single-parent households, along with the second-highest divorce rate. Educational outcomes are similarly troubling: Okinawa consistently ranks lowest on national achievement tests for grades six through nine and has the country’s lowest university enrollment rate.

The elderly in Okinawa bear a significant burden of poverty. The proportion of senior citizens not receiving pensions is about double the national average, partly due to the island’s extended period under US rule after World War II. While Japan’s national pension program began in 1961, Okinawa’s system was only implemented in 1970. Even after Okinawa’s return to Japanese sovereignty in 1972, low wages and limited awareness prevented many residents from paying full premiums. As of 2022, about 68% of Okinawans still do not pay standard premiums, resulting in low future benefits. Currently, 6.2% of those aged 65 and older receive no pension, and those who do receive an average of ¥51,864, the lowest in Japan.

A Beacon of Resilience

Despite enduring economic struggles and historical challenges, Okinawa is renowned for its people’s remarkable resilience and longevity. Okinawan women, in particular, enjoy an impressive average life expectancy of 87.44 years, a statistic that evokes the ancient belief in a paradisiacal “land of the immortals.”

Designated as a Blue Zone—one of the world’s regions known for exceptional longevity—Okinawa exemplifies the benefits of a balanced, traditional lifestyle. Residents maintain low stress levels, strong family and community ties, and active lives well into their 80s and beyond. Their diet, rich in locally sourced and nutrient-dense foods like sweet potatoes and other plant-based staples, helps reduce the risks of cancer, heart disease, and dementia, diseases common in Western populations.

The Okinawan way of life is deeply rooted in a deep sense of community, or yuimaru, and the concept of ikigai, a profound sense of purpose. These cultural pillars, combined with their healthy diet and active habits, have been praised as key factors in their well-being.

Though Okinawa has faced myriad challenges, its people continue to inspire with their resilience, community spirit, and positive outlook. Their enduring vitality and joie de vivre stand as a testament to the strength of their culture, reminding us that even in the face of adversity, the human spirit can thrive.

---

If you are interested in learning more about the history of the Ryukyu Kingdom, I recommend Okinawa: The History of an Island People, by George Kerr, a major source for this article.

---

If you have questions about Japan or suggestions for articles, please add them in the comments. For more photos and information on Japan, follow me on instagram at: https://www.instagram.com/more_than_tokyo/